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- 2. What is discourse? Discourseis one of the four systems of language, the others being vocabulary, grammar and phonology. Discourse has various definitions but one way of thinking about it is as any piece of extended language, written or spoken, that has unity and meaning and purpose. One possible way of understanding 'extended' is as language that is more than one sentence. Example: Something as short as two phrases in a conversation or as long as an entire extended essay are both examples of discourse and both show various features of discourse.
- 3. How does discourserelate to graphology? ● As both consider the whole text, graphology will be mentioned when discussing discourse ● Semiotics- the study of signs- can link to discourse as signs and symbols work together to demonstrate human communication Example of semiotics: an image may be symbolic of something and is representing an idea or representation. E.g. a poppy is symbolic of remembrance and peace.
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- 6. What are thefour types of discourse? ● Argument: A form of communication meant to convince an audience that the writer or speaker is correct, using evidence and reason. ● Narration: This form of communication tells a story, often with emotion and empathy involved. ● Description: A form of communication that relies on the five senses to help the audience visualize something. ● Exposition: Exposition is used to inform the audience of something with relatively neutral language, i.e., it’s not meant to persuade or evoke emotion
- 7. Discourse Markers Initially, discoursemarkers are used in spoken language. They signify to the reader where the speaker wants to take the listener next regarding the event they are talking about. Example: –We went shopping and then we took the Thames boat to Parliament.
- 8. Discourse Markers inwritten word You might use discourse markers to structure your arguments. Example: –Furthermore, one might say the issue of global warming is not only bad because affects the earth, but it also affects people and animals. –However, it might be right to point out here that the hot weather in England is much better than the ice and snow.
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- 10. The Structure ofLanguage The most basic units of meaning are simple words (e.g.: dog, yes and swim) or the elements of complex words (e.g.: un- -happi- and -ness in unhappiness). These basic elements are called morphemes, and the study of how they are combined in words is morphology. The study of how words are organised into phrases, clauses and sentences is usually referred to as syntax. A longer stretch of language is known as discourse, the study of its structure as discourse analysis. This hierarchy is partly explained by the table below, from David Crystal's The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. The right hand column should be read upwards, in the direction of the arrow.
- 11. Outline structure ofEnglish sentences are analysed into clauses are analysed into phrases are analysed into words are analysed into morphemes ↓ ↑ sentences are used to build clauses are used to build phrases are used to build words are used to build morphemes
- 12. Three-part model ofEnglish Morphology Syntax Discourse morphemes ↓ words phrases ↓ clauses ↓ sentences relationships between sentences in longer stretches of language
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- 14. What is themost interesting thing that has ever happened to you?
- 15. How do youstructure a story? Opening: introduces character, setting, genre, hooks the reader Rising action: more depth to character/plot Dilemma: problem- they make the wrong decision Climax: main action Resolution: ending -happy, sad, cliff-hanger, plot twist, flash-forward, flash-back Falling action: problem starts to be resolved
- 16. Storytelling The sociolinguist WilliamLabov (1972) suggested a structure for explaining how speakers gave accounts of personal experiences based on fieldwork he carried out in New York. He suggested that one-speaker narratives largely followed this order of elements: -Abstract (A): an indication that the speaker wants the listener’s attention and is signalling the start of the narrative -Orientation (O): the ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘what’, and ‘why’ that sets the scene and provides background information that the speaker sees as important -Complicating action (CA): the main body of the narrative -Resolution (R): the ending of the narrative that ties up loose ends and provides closure -Coda (C): a signal that the narrative has ended *Labov suggested that at any point in a narrative speakers can include an evaluation internal evaluation: the speaker stands back from the action and makes comments about their opinion which are within the same time frame as the main narrative External evaluation: the speaker stands back from the action
- 17. Task: create yourown narrative using the structure that Labov suggests
- 18. How do Ianalyse a text in terms of discourse?
- 19. Features of discourseyou can analyse: -Genres of texts (including internal structures and distinctive features) -Cohesion -Context -Mode- spoken (speech, script), written (novel, essay), multimodal (both written and spoken- gaming, skype) -PAF -Societal attitudes
- 20. What is cohesion? Cohesionis how the discourse fits together. There are two types of cohesion: “Lexical cohesion- the words in the discourse relate to each other throughout. “Grammatical cohesion- using grammar to link the discourse. An example of this is seen in the use of adverbs to link sentences to previous paragraphs (e.g. Similarly, Furthermore).
- 21. Critical Discourse Analysis Thisis a type of text analysis that tries to reveal the power structures that are maintained in society through the discourse used.
- 22. Task: critical discourseanalysis Look at the following sentences and discuss how each one seems to view English and the attitudes which the producers of the sentences hold. 1. The English language belongs to the Anglo-Frisian sub-group of the West Germanic branch of the Germanic languages. 2. Are ‘grammar Nazis’ ruining our English Language? 3. English is being mangled by new technologies and it is being destroyed before our very eyes. Fight back! 4. GCSE English Language allows students to show their ability to analyse language and to use language creatively. 5. You might need to prove your knowledge of the English language if you’re over 18 and applying for citizenship or to settle in the UK. 6. The English language is a vast flea market of words, handed down, borrowed or created over more than 2000 years.
- 23. Task: critical discourseanalysis 1. This represents the idea of English Language as one of many languages within a category. It is something to be classified. 2. This sees language as something under attack. 3. This views language as something which needs protection. 4. This presents English as an academic school subject. 5. This represents English as a badge of membership which has to be shown in order to join the group. 6. This suggests that English has a lively and interesting history.
- 24. Discourse in spokenlanguage
- 25. Discourse Markers These arethe words and phrases which organises writing or utterances. They signal to the reader or listener what is likely to come next.
- 26. Turn-taking Normal conversation workswhen the interlocutors (participants) take turns when speaking. There are generally socially agreed norms that we avoid overlapping and minimise silences between utterances. Some studies into gender and linguistics have determined that male participants interrupt more or that women speak more than men. However more recent studies show that there are no gender specific traits.
- 27. False Starts A commonfeature or spoken language is the presence of false starts. This is where the speaker begins an utterance but stop and begins again. It is sometimes referred to as self-correction. If you are analysing a transcript consider why the speaker has made a false start: Are they nervous? Are they trying to be sensitive to the other participant? e.g. A: I think that…er…I wouldn’t go down there
- 28. Overlaps // If participantsin a conversation speak simultaneously this will be indicated with the symbol // Overlapping can be supportive and show that the participants are in agreement. E.g. A: so I went inside and reported //the incident to the manager. B: //good idea Overlaps can also be a sign of discord in a conversation. E.g. A: So you went in and took it //without asking B: //No no that’s not what happened
- 29. Latch on = Thisoccurs when a speaker in a conversation responds to the other speaker’s utterance without a pause or hesitation. This could occur for a variety of reasons. e.g. C 1: and Green takes the ball (.) he’s in control C 2: = and he shoots C 1: = straight into the back of the net
- 30. Adjacency pairs In conversationwhen we get sets of two utterances with set patterns we refer to them adjacency pairs. e.g. A: It’s lovely weather “isn’t it B: Yes it’s great Or A: Hello (.) please take a seat B: Hello (.) thank you Sometimes a speaker will flout the maxim and not respond appropriately. Consider the following interaction: A: well how do I look? B: the shoes are nice
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- 33. What happens inthe middle of opening and closing sequence?
- 34. Face Theory Erving Goffmanestablished Face Theory: an idea that we all present a ‘face’ in each conversation we have. Positive face Negative face Face Threatening Act Facework: the ways in which speakers protect, support or challenge each other’s faces Framing: the idea that speakers mark their understanding of the context they are in (e.g. smiling to convey they are being playful)
- 35. Are these face-threateningacts? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rGWLoev_D_c https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WiTPWJTi3Zw
- 36. Grice’s Maxims (therules of conversation) - Quality: everything you say must be true - Quantity: you must not say too much or too little - Relevance: you must not go off topic and answer what is being asked - Manner: correct formality for the situation and clear in your discussion *Break a maxim- flouting*