In the last post we saw that we can compose an effectful program f: (a: A) => F<B> with a pure program g: (b: B) => C by lifting g to a function lift(g): (fb: F<B>) => F<C> provided that F admits a functor instance

However g must be unary, that is it must accept only one argument as input. What if g accepts two arguments? Can we still lift g by using only the functor instance? Well, let's try!

Currying

First of all we must model a function that accepts two arguments, let's say of type B and C (we can use a tuple) and returns a value of type D

g: (args: [B, C]) => D 

We can rewrite g using a technique called currying.

Currying is the technique of translating the evaluation of a function that takes multiple arguments into evaluating a sequence of functions, each with a single argument. For example, a function that takes two arguments, one from B and one from C, and produces outputs in D, by currying is translated into a function that takes a single argument from C and produces as outputs functions from B to C.

(source: currying on wikipedia.org)

So we can rewrite g to

g: (b: B) => (c: C) => D 

What we want is a lifting operation, let't call it liftA2 in order to distinguish it from our old lift, that outputs a function with the following signature

liftA2(g): (fb: F<B>) => (fc: F<C>) => F<D> 

How can we get there? Since g is now unary, we can use the functor instance and our old lift

lift(g): (fb: F<B>) => F<(c: C) => D> 

But now we are stuck: there's no legal operation on the functor instance which is able to unpack the value F<(c: C) => D> to a function (fc: F<C>) => F<D>.

Apply

So let's introduce a new abstraction Apply that owns such a unpacking operation (named ap)

interface Apply<F> extends Functor<F> { ap: <C, D>(fcd: HKT<F, (c: C) => D>, fc: HKT<F, C>) => HKT<F, D> } 

The ap function is basically unpack with the arguments rearranged

unpack: <C, D>(fcd: HKT<F, (c: C) => D>) => ((fc: HKT<F, C>) => HKT<F, D>) ap: <C, D>(fcd: HKT<F, (c: C) => D>, fc: HKT<F, C>) => HKT<F, D> 

so ap can be derived from unpack (and viceversa).

Note: the HKT type is the fp-ts way to represent a generic type constructor (a technique proposed in the Lightweight higher-kinded polymorphism paper) so when you see HKT<F, X> you can think to the type constructor F applied to the type X (i.e. F<X>).

Applicative

Moreover it would be handy if there exists an operation which is able to lift a value of type A to a value of type F<A>. This way we could call the liftA2(g) function either by providing arguments of type F<B> and F<C> or by lifting values of type B and C.

So let's introduce the Applicative abstraction which builds upon Apply and owns such operation (named of)

interface Applicative<F> extends Apply<F> { of: <A>(a: A) => HKT<F, A> } 

Let's see the Applicative instances for some common data types

Example (F = Array)

import { flatten } from 'fp-ts/Array' const applicativeArray = { map: <A, B>(fa: Array<A>, f: (a: A) => B): Array<B> => fa.map(f), of: <A>(a: A): Array<A> => [a], ap: <A, B>(fab: Array<(a: A) => B>, fa: Array<A>): Array<B> => flatten(fab.map(f => fa.map(f))) } 

Example (F = Option)

import { Option, some, none, isNone } from 'fp-ts/Option' const applicativeOption = { map: <A, B>(fa: Option<A>, f: (a: A) => B): Option<B> => isNone(fa) ? none : some(f(fa.value)), of: <A>(a: A): Option<A> => some(a), ap: <A, B>(fab: Option<(a: A) => B>, fa: Option<A>): Option<B> => isNone(fab) ? none : applicativeOption.map(fa, fab.value) } 

Example (F = Task)

import { Task } from 'fp-ts/Task' const applicativeTask = { map: <A, B>(fa: Task<A>, f: (a: A) => B): Task<B> => () => fa().then(f), of: <A>(a: A): Task<A> => () => Promise.resolve(a), ap: <A, B>(fab: Task<(a: A) => B>, fa: Task<A>): Task<B> => () => Promise.all([fab(), fa()]).then(([f, a]) => f(a)) } 

Lifting

So given an instance of Apply for F can we now write liftA2?

import { HKT } from 'fp-ts/HKT' import { Apply } from 'fp-ts/Apply' type Curried2<B, C, D> = (b: B) => (c: C) => D function liftA2<F>( F: Apply<F> ): <B, C, D>(g: Curried2<B, C, D>) => Curried2<HKT<F, B>, HKT<F, C>, HKT<F, D>> { return g => fb => fc => F.ap(F.map(fb, g), fc) } 

Nice! But what about functions with three arguments? Do we need yet another abstraction?

The good news is that the answer is no, Apply is enough

type Curried3<B, C, D, E> = (b: B) => (c: C) => (d: D) => E function liftA3<F>( F: Apply<F> ): <B, C, D, E>( g: Curried3<B, C, D, E> ) => Curried3<HKT<F, B>, HKT<F, C>, HKT<F, D>, HKT<F, E>> { return g => fb => fc => fd => F.ap(F.ap(F.map(fb, g), fc), fd) } 

Actually given an instance of Apply we can write a liftAn function, for each n.

Note. liftA1 is just lift, the Functor operation.

We can now update our "composition table"

Is the general problem solved?

Not yet. There's still an important case which is missing: what if both programs are effectful?

Again we need something more: in the next post I'll talk about one of the most important abstractions of functional programming: monads.

TLDR: functional programming is all about composition