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Problem Solving with C The Object of Programming
Fourth Edition Walter J. Savitch Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Walter J. Savitch
ISBN(s): 9780321113474, 0321113470
Edition: Fourth Edition
File Details: PDF, 100.33 MB
Year: 2002
Language: english
PROBLEM SOLVING
WITH

WALTER SAVITCH
J

PROBLEM SOLVING

THE OBJECT
OF PROGRAMMING
Fourth Edition

WALTER SAVITCH
University of California,
San Diego

Boston San Francisco New York

London Toronto Sydney Tokyo Singapore Madrid
Mexico City Munich Paris Cape Town Hong Kong Montreal
1

Executive Editor Susan Hartman

Project Editor Emily Genaway
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Access the latest information about Addison-Wesley Computing titles from our World Wide Web site:

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The programs and applications presented in this book have been included for their instructional value. They
have been tested with care, but are not guaranteed for any particular purpose. The publisher does not offer
any warranties or representations, nor does it accept any liabilities with respect to the programs or
applications.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Savitch, Walter J., 1943-

Problem solving with C++: the object of programming / Walter Savitch. —4th ed.

p. cm.

Includes index
ISBN 0-321-1 1347-0 (alk. paper)
1C++ (Computer program language)
. I. Title.

QA76.73.C153S29 2003
005. 13' 3—dc21
2002074352

Copyright © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America.

ISBN 0-321-11347-0
1 23456789 0-CRW-0403020
1
Preface
This book is meant to be used in a first course in programming and computer science
using the C++ language. It assumes no previous programming experience and no
mathematics beyond high school algebra.
If you have used an earlier edition of this book, you should read the following
section that explains the changes to this fourth edition, and then you can skip the rest
of this preface. If you are new to this book, the rest of this preface will give you an
overview of the book.

Changes to the Fourth Edition

This fourth edition presents the same programming philosophy and uses the same
outline of topics as the third edition. If you are an instructor already using the third
edition, you can continue to teach your course almost without change. Examples have
been updated, more exercises have been added, and some topics have been added.
While the previous edition was fully compatible with the new ANSI/ISO standard, this
edition embraces the standard even more fully. To reflect this modernization, we have
updated terminology, for example, using function declaration in place of function
prototype and freestore in place of heap. However, despite a thorough updating of the
text, the order of topics and most examples remain with only minor changes.
This fourth edition does offer an opportunity for adding topics to a course. This
edition adds coverage of vectors. It also contains a number of smaller additions, such
as discussions of pointers as iterators and dynamic multidimensional arrays.

Choose Your Own Ordering off Topics

Most introductory textbooks that use C++ have a very detailed agenda that
instructors must follow to use the book in their courses. That is not true of this book.
If you are an instructor, this book adapts to the way you teach, rather than making

you adapt to the book. You can easily change the order in which chapters and
sections are covered without loss of continuity in reading the book. Display P.l
shows a dependency chart for the material in this book, and each chapter has a
"Prerequisites" section that explains what chapters need to be covered before each
section in that chapter. This allows instructors to easily rearrange the order in which
chapters, or even sections, are covered.
Although this book uses libraries and teaches students the importance of libraries,
it does not any require nonstandard libraries. This book uses only libraries that are pro-
vided with essentially all C++ implementations.
PREFACE

ANSI/ISO C++ Standard

This edition has been fully updated for use with compilers that meet the new ANSI/ISO
C++ standard. Since there no longer any reason to use compilers that do not
is

conform to the new standard, we no longer include extensive material on coping

with older compilers.

Early Introduction of Classes

This books allows for flexibile coverage of classes. You may cover classes either
early or late.
There are at least two waysbook can introduce classes early: A book can
that a

teach students how to design their own classes

early in the book or it can merely teach
them how to use classes early without defining them. This book teaches students to
define their own classes early and does not merely teach them how to use classes early.
To effectively design classes, a student needs basic tools such as some simple control
structures and function definitions. Thus, this book starts out covering these basics in
Chapters 2, 3, and 4. It then moves immediately to classes. In Chapter 5, file I/O
streams are used to teach students how to use classes. In Chapter 6, students learn
how to write their own classes.
This book uses a measured approach to teaching classes. It teaches students to
write some very simple classes, and then it adds constructors, then overloading sim-
ple operators, then overloading the I/O operators « and », and so forth. This mea-
sured approach keeps the student from being overwhelmed with a long list of
complicated constructions and concepts. However, one goal of this book is to get stu-
dents to write realistic class definitions as soon as possible, and not to have them
spend time writing classes that are artificially simple. By the end of Chapter 8, stu-
dents are writing essentially the same kinds of classes that they will be writing when
they finish the course.
In classroom testing, we found that students respond to early classes in basically

thesame way that they respond to early functions. Certainly the material presents
some problems. However, students are as capable of learning the material early in
the course as they will be later in the course. Moreover, covering classes early leaves
students with a better working knowledge of classes. Students have a strong loyalty
to the first technique they learn for solving a problem. So, if you want them to really

use a technique, you need to teach it early. Moreover, classes are not the hardest
topic the students encounter. For example, classes are more intuitive and better
behaved than ordinary (C-style) arrays, which they learn later in the course.

Having made the case for early classes, we are still aware that not everybody
wants to introduce classes as early as we do, so we have written the book to allow
instructors to move coverage of classes to later in the course. This is discussed in the
section "Flexibility in Topic Ordering" later in this preface.
PREFACE

Inheritance is covered briefly in Chapter 5 so that students become aware of the

concept. However, this book, does not teach students how to write their own derived
book because the examples that strongly motivate inherit-
classes until later in the
ance and derived classes often do not arise naturally at the beginning of a first
course. Chapter 16 teaches students how to define and use derived classes, including
the use of virtual functions. Some instructors may choose to leave that material for a

second course. Other instructors will want to integrate this inheritance coverage into
their course. If desired, the material on inheritance may be moved up and covered
before some of the preceding chapters.

Accessibility to Students
It is not enough for a book to present the right topics in the right order. It is not even

enough for it to be clear and correct when read by an instructor or other experienced
programmer. The material needs to be presented in a way that is accessible to
beginning students. In this series of introductory textbooks, I have endeavored to
write in a way that students find clear and friendly. Reports from the many students
who have used the earlier editions of this book confirm that this style makes the
material clear and often even enjoyable to students.

Advanced Topics
Many "advanced topics" are becoming part of a standard CS1 course. Even if they
are not part of a course, it is good to have them available in the text as enrichment
material. This book offers a number of advanced topics that can be integrated into a
course or left as enrichment topics. It gives thorough coverage of C++ templates,
inheritance (including virtual functions), and exception handling.

Summary Boxes
Each major point is summarized in a boxed section. These boxed sections are spread
throughout each chapter.

Self-Test Exercises
Each chapter contains numerous Self-Test Exercises at strategic points. Complete
answers for all the Self-Test Exercises are given at the end of each chapter.
.

PREFACE

Classroom Tested
Hundreds of thousands of students have used the first three editions of this book.
Many of these students and many of their instructors have given me feedback about
what worked and what did not work for them. The vast majority of the comments
were extremely positive and indicated that students and teachers liked the book
pretty much asit was, but suggestions for some changes were made. All suggestions

for changes were carefully considered. That valuable feedback was used to revise
this edition so that it fits students' and instructors' needs even better than the
previous editions.

Flexibility in Topic Ordering

This book was written to allow instructors wide latitude in reordering the material.

To illustrate this flexibility, we

number of alternative ways to order the
suggest a
topics. There is no loss of continuity when the book is read in any of these ways. To
ensure this continuity when you rearrange material, you may need to move sections
rather than entire chapters. However, only large sections in convenient locations are
moved. To help customize a particular order to any class's needs, Display P.l

contains a dependency chart, and each chapter has a "Prerequisites" section that
explains what chapters need to be covered before each section in that chapter.

Reordering 1 : Late Classes

This version essentially covers all of a traditional ANSI C course before going on to
cover classes. The only thing that is much like C++ before the introduction of classes
is the use of streams for I/O. Because stream I/O does require some use of namespaces
and class libraries, some minimal coverage of how to use predefined namespaces and
some standard library I/O classes is integrated into the first few chapters.

Basics: Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7 (omitting Chapter 6 on defining classes).

This material covers all control structures, function definitions, and basic
file I/O.

Arrays: Chapter 10, omitting Section 10.4, which uses classes.

C -style strings: Section 11.1 of Chapter 1 1

Pointers and dynamic arrays: Chapter 12, omitting the last section (Section

12.3), which covers material on classes.

Recursion: Chapter 13, omitting the programming example on classes that ends

the chapter. (Alternatively, recursion may be moved to later in the course.)

Structures and classes: Chapters 6, 8, and Section 1 1.2 of Chapter 11.

PREFACE

Separate compilation and namespaces: Chapter 9.

Pointers and linked lists: Chapter 15.

Any subset of the following chapters may also be used:

Vectors: Section 1 1.3 of Chapter 11.

Templates: Chapter 14.

Inheritance: Chapter 16.

Exception handling: Chapter 17.

Reordering 2: Classes Slightly Earlier

This version covers all control structures and the basic material on arrays before
doing classes, but classes are covered somewhat earlier than the previous reordering.

Basics: Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7 (omitting Chapter 6 on defining classes).

This material covers all control structures, function definitions, and basic
file I/O.

Arrays: Chapter 10, omitting Section 10.4, which uses classes.

C -style strings: Section 11.1 of Chapter 11.

Structures and classes: Chapters 6, 8, and Section 1 1.2 of Chapter 1 1.

Separate compilation and namespaces: Chapter 9.

Pointers and dynamic arrays: Chapter 12.

Recursion: Chapter 13.

Pointers and linked lists: Chapter 15.

Any subset of the following chapters may also be used:

Vectors: Section 1 1.3 of Chapter 1 1.

Templates: Chapter 14.

Inheritance: Chapter 16.

Exception handling: Chapter 17.

Reordering 3: Early Classes, but with

All Control StructuresCovered before Classes
This is almost the regular ordering of the book. You only need to move Chapter 7 so
that you cover it before Chapter 6.
vlii I'Kt I Al I

Support A/latorlal
i
he Following support material Is available from the publishei
hi ( |>: www.,iw. i om/savi 1 i h/

Programs from the text', All the programs in the text are available bj I >llo\\

in" the imks .11 the above Web site

PowerPoint slides Including programs and an from the text.

Alternatively, you can find the programs bj going lo the author's w*. h sin
given below, and Follow Ing the links there
lit I |> unu i so. Ill sil.OiUl llsiM's saviti'h

rhe follow Ing supplements are Foi qualified instructors onl) Please >. ontact
youi Addison Wcsle) representative foi information

ln$trncto s
Reso •• GmiV/i Hie chapter-b) chaptei instructor's guide
UK ludes numerous teaching hints, qui? questions with solutions, tind so lutions
to man) programming exercises

Ki •'
I* in powerful test generator software

/ ah Miinihil

E-mail Contact
i
would ver) much like to heai youi comments so thai I can continue to improve
this book to make il bettei ft! youi needs Please send youi comments to the
follow Hi'' c mail address
i\s,t\ i t i India m1 oJu .

I wan! to know how you like the book and I want suggestions Foi changes, but
unfortunate!) i
am nol able to pro\ ide students with an e mail consulting 01 tutoring
service rhe volume ol e mail has gotten too large foi tins in particular, i cannot
provide solutions to exercises in tins book 01 to othei exercises provided 'on youi
Instructoi I stmpl) do nol have enough time to answei the numerous requests that l

get foi such detailed assistance I also do nol want to interfere with an) instructor's
pi. ins foi how students should go about sol\ ing programming problems \s .u least .»

partial consolation to those who desire such help, tins book does include complete
answers to all ol the Sell lest i xercises Also, the instructor's guide does provide
instructors with some answers to Programming Projects, but that material is on!)
available to instructors who adopt the book, and it cannot iv given out to students
Introduction to
Computers and C++
Programming
1.1 Computer Systems 2
Hardware 2
Software 7
High-Level Languages 8
Compilers 9
History Note 12

1.2 Programming and Problem-Solving 13

Algorithms 14
Program Design 1

Object-Oriented Programming 1

The Software Life Cycle 1

1.3 Introduction to C++ 19

Origins of theC++ Language 1

A Sample C++ Program 20

Pi tf al 1 Using the Wrong Slash in \n 24
:

Programmi ng Ti p Input and Output Syntax 25

:

Layout of a Simple C++ Program 25

Pi tf al 1 Putting a Space before the i ncl ude File Name 27
:

Compiling and Running a C++ Program 28

Prog rammi ng Ti p Getting Your Program to Run 28
:

1.4 Testing and Debugging 31

Kinds of Program Errors 32
Pi tf al 1 Assuming Your Program
: Is Correct 33

Chapter Summary 34
Answers to Self-Test Exercises 35
Programming Projects 37

L
Introduction to Computers
and C++ Programming

The whole of the development and operation of analysis are now capable of being
executed by machinery ...As soon as an Analytical Engine exists, it will
necessarily guide the future course of science.

Charles Babbage (1792-1871)

Introduction
In this chapter we describe the basic components of a computer, as well as the basic
technique for designing and writing a program. We then show you a sample C++
program and describe how it works.

1.1 Computer Systems

A set of instructions for a computer to follow is called a program. The collection of
software programs used by a computer is referred to as the software for that computer. The
actual physical machines that make up a computer installation are referred to as
hardware hardware. As we will see, the hardware for a computer is conceptually very simple.
However, computers now come with a large array of software to aid in the task of
programming. This software includes editors, translators, and managers of various
sorts. The resulting environment is a complicated and powerful system. In this book

we are concerned almost exclusively with software, but a brief overview of how the
hardware is organized will be useful.

Hardware
PCs, There are three main classes of computers: PCs, workstations, and mainframes. A
workstations, and PC (personal computer) is a relatively small computer designed to be used by one
mainframes person at a time. Most home computers are PCs, but PCs are also widely used in
business, industry, and science. A workstation is essentially a larger and more
powerful PC. You can think of it as an "industrial-strength" PC. A mainframe is an
even larger computer that typically requires some support staff and generally is

shared by more than one user. The distinctions between PCs, workstations, and
mainframes are not precise, but the terms are commonly used and do convey some
very general information about a computer.
1 Computer Systems

Display 1.1 Main Components of a Computer

processor (CPU)

Input Output
Main memory
device(s) device(s)

W^
2
Secondary
memory

A network consists of a number of computers connected, so they may share network

resources, such as printers, and may share information. A network might contain a
number of workstations and one or more mainframes, as well as shared devices such
as printers.
For our purposes in learning programming, it will not matter whether you are
working on a PC, a mainframe, or a workstation. The basic configuration of the com-
we will view it, is the same for all three types of computers.
puter, as

The hardware for most computer systems is organized as shown in Display 1.1.
The computer can be thought of as having five main components: the input
device(s), the output device(s), the processor (also called the CPU), the main mem-
ory, and the secondary memory. The processor, main memory, and sometimes even
secondary memory are normally housed in a single cabinet. The processor and main
memory form the heart of a computer and can be thought of as an integrated unit.
1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS AND C++ PROGRAMMING

Other components connect to the main memory and operate under the direction of
the processor. The arrows in Display 1 . 1 indicate the direction of information flow.
input devices An input device is any device that allows a person to communicate information
to the computer. Your primary input devices are likely to be a keyboard and a mouse.
output devices An output device is anything that allows the computer to communicate informa-
tion to you. The most common output device is a display screen, referred to as a mon-
itor. Quite often, there is more than one output device. For example, in addition to the

monitor, your computer probably has a printer for producing output on paper. The
keyboard and monitor are sometimes thought of as a single unit called a terminal.
In order to store input and to have the equivalent of scratch paper for performing
calculations, computers are provided with memory. The program that the computer
executes is memory. A computer has two forms of memory, called
also .stored in this
main memory and secondary memory. The program that is being executed is kept in
main memory, and main memory is, as the name implies, the most important mem-
mam memory ory. Main memory consists of a long list of numbered locations called memory

locations; the number of memory locations varies from one computer to another,
ranging from a few thousand to many millions, and sometimes even into the billions.
Each memory location contains a string of zeros and ones. The contents of these
locations can change. Hence, you can think of each memory location as a tiny black-
board on which the computer may write and erase. In most computers, all memory
locations contain the same number of zero/one digits. A digit that can assume only
bit the values zero or one is called a binary digit or a bit. The memory locations in
most computers contain eight bits (or some multiple of eight bits). An eight-bit por-
byte tion of memory is called a byte, so we may refer to these numbered memory loca-
tions as bytes. To rephrase the situation, you can think of the computer's main
memory as a long list of numbered memory locations called bytes. The number that
address identifies a byte is called its address. A data item, such as a number or a letter, can

be stored in one of these bytes, and the address of the byte is then used to find the
data item when it is needed.
If the computer needs to deal with a data item (such as a large number) that is

too large to fit in a single byte, it will use several adjacent bytes to hold the data item.
memory In this case the entire chunk of memory that holds the data item is still called a
location memory location. The address of the first of the bytes that make up this memory
location is used as the address for this larger memory location. Thus, as a practical
matter, you can think of the computer's main memory as a long list of memory loca-
tions of varying sizes. The size of each of these locations is expressed in bytes and
the address of the first byte is used as the address (name) of that memory location.

Display shows a picture of a hypothetical computer's main memory. The sizes of

1 .2

the memory locations are not fixed, but can change when a new program is run on
the computer.
1.1 Computer Systems

Display 1 .2 Memory Locations and Bytes

byte 1

byte 2 3 byte location with address 1

byte 3
byte 4
2 byte location with address 4
byte 5
byte 6
byte 7
vWWWV 1 byte location with address 6

byte 8 3 byte location with address 7

byte 9

Bytes and Addresses

Main memory is divided into numbered
locations called bytes. The number
associated with a byte is called its address. A
group of consecutive bytes is used as
the location for a data item, such as a number or letter. The address of the first byte
in the group is used as the address of this larger memory location.

The fact that the information in a computer's memory is represented as zeros and
ones need not be of great concern to you when programming in C4-+ (or in most any
other programming language). There is, however, one point about this use of zeros
and ones that will concern us as soon as we start to write programs. The computer
needs to interpret these strings of zeros and ones as numbers, letters, instructions, or
other types of information. The computer performs these interpretations automat-
ically according to certain coding schemes. A different code is used for each different
type of item that is stored in the computer's memory: one code for letters, another for
whole numbers, another for fractions, another for instructions, and so on. For exam-
ple, in one commonly used set of codes, 01000001 is the code for the letter A and also
for the number 65. In order to know what the string 01000001 in a particular location
1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS AND C++ PROGRAMMING

Why Eight?
A byte is a memory location that can hold eight bits. What is so special about
eight? Why not ten bits? There are two reasons why eight
First, eight is ais special.
power of 2. (8 2 .) Since computers use bits, which only have two possible
is

values, powers of two are more convenient than powers of 10. Second, it turns out
that it requires eight bits (one byte) to code a single character (such as a letter or
other keyboard symbol).

stands for, the computer must keep track of which code is currently being used for
that location. Fortunately, the programmer seldom needs to be concerned with such
codes and can safely reason as though the locations actually contained letters, num-
bers, or whatever is desired.
The memory we have been discussing up until now is the main memory. With-
out main memory, a computer can do nothing. However, main memory is only
its

used while the computer is actually following the instructions in a program. The
computer also has another form of memory called secondary memory or secondary
storage. (The words memory and storage are exact synonyms in this context.)
secondary memory Secondary memory isthe memory that is used for keeping a permanent record of
information after (and before) the computer is used. Some alternative terms that are
commonly used to refer to secondary memory are auxiliary memory, auxiliary stor-
age, external memory, and external storage.
Information in secondary storage is kept in units called files, which can be as
large or as small as you like. A program, for example, is stored in a file in secondary
storage and copied into main memory when the program is run. You can store a pro-
gram, a letter, an inventory list, or any other unit of information in a file.

Several different kinds of secondary memory may be attached to a single com-

puter. The most common forms of secondary memory are hard disks, diskettes, and
CDs. (Diskettes are also sometimes referred to as floppy disks.) CDs (compact disks)
used on computers are basically the same as those used to record and play music.
CDs for computers may be read-only so that your computer can read, but cannot
change, the data on the CD; CDs for computers can also be read/write CDs, which
can have their data changed by the computer. Information is stored on hard disks and
CDs, disks, and same way as it is stored on CDs. Hard disks are fixed in
diskettes in basically the
diskettes place and are normally not removed from the disk drive. Diskettes and CDs can be
easily removed from the disk drive and carried to another computer. Diskettes and
CDs have the advantages of being inexpensive and portable, but hard disks hold
more data and operate faster. Other forms of secondary memory are also available,
but this list covers most forms that you are likely to encounter.
1 . Computer Systems

Main memory is often referred to as RAM or random access memory. It is RAM

calledrandom access because the computer can immediately access the data in any
memory location. Secondary memory often requires sequential access, which
means that the computer must look through all (or at least very many) memory loca-
tions until it finds the item it needs.
The processor (also know as the central processing unit, or CPU) is the processor, chip

"brain" of the computer. When a computer is advertised, the computer company will

tell you what chip it contains. The chip is the processor. The processor follows the
instructions in a program and performs the calculations specified by the program. The
processor is, however, a very simple brain. All it can do is follow a set of simple
instructions provided by the programmer. Typical processor instructions say things
like "Interpret the zeros and ones as numbers, and then add the number in memory
location 37 to the number in memory location 59, and put the answer in location 43,"
or "Read a letter of input, convert it to its code as a string of zeros and ones, and place
it memory location 1298." The processor can add, subtract, multiply, and divide
in

and can move things from one memory location to another. It can interpret strings of
zeros and ones as letters and send the letters to an output device. The processor also
has some primitive ability to rearrange the order of instructions, processor instruc-
tions vary somewhat from one computer to another. The processor of a modern com-
puter can have as many as several hundred available instructions. However, these
instructions are typically all about as simple as those we have just described.

Software
You do not normally talk directly to the computer, but communicate with it through
an operating system. The operating system allocates the computer's resources to operating system

the different tasks that the computer must accomplish. The operating system is

actually a program, but it is perhaps better to think of if as your chief servant. It is in

charge of all your other servant programs, and it delivers your requests to them. If
you want to run a program, you tell the operating system the name of the file that

contains it, and the operating system runs the program.

you want to edit a file, you If

tell the operating system the name of the file and it starts up the editor to work on

that file. To most users the operating system is the computer. Most users never see

the computer without its operating system. The names of some common operating
systems are UNIX, DOS, Linux, Windows, Macintosh, and VMS.
A program is a set of instructions for a computer to follow. As shown in Dis- program

play 1.3, the input to a computer can be thought of as consisting of two parts, a pro-
gram and some data. The computer follows the instructions in the program, and in
that way, performs some process. The data what we conceptualize as the input to
is data

the program. For example, if the program adds two numbers, then the two numbers
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS AND C++ PROGRAMMING

Display 1 .3 Simple View of Running a Program

( Program f Data
J J

Computer

f Output
J

are the data. In other words, the data is the input to the program, and both the pro-
gram and the data are input to the computer (usually via the operating system).
running a Whenever we give a computer both a program to follow and some data for the pro-
program gram, we are said to be running the program on the data, and the computer is said
executing a to execute the program on the data. The word data also has a much more general
program meaning than the one we have just given it. In its most general sense it means any
information available to the computer. The word is commonly used in both the nar-
row sense and the more general sense.

High-Level Languages
There are many languages for writing programs. In this text we will discuss the C++
programming language and use it to write our programs. C++ is a high-level
language, as are most of the other programming languages you are likely to have
heard of, such as C, Java, Pascal, Visual Basic, FORTRAN, COBOL, Lisp, Scheme,
high-level language and Ada. High-level languages resemble human languages in many ways. They are
designed to be easy for human beings to write programs in and to be easy for human
beings to read. A high-level language, such as C++, contains instructions that are
much more complicated than the simple instructions a computer's processor (CPU)
is capable of following.
low-level The kind of language a computer can understand is called a low-level language.
The exact details of low-level languages differ from one kind of computer to another.
A typical low-level instruction might be the following:

ADD X Y Z
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Agriculture - Term Paper
Winter 2025 - Faculty

Prepared by: Instructor Brown

Date: July 28, 2025

Methodology 1: Literature review and discussion

Learning Objective 1: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 9: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Background 2: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 11: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 14: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 16: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 17: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 18: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 19: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Background 3: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 26: Ethical considerations and implications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 29: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 4: Literature review and discussion
Practice Problem 30: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 34: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 38: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Lesson 5: Learning outcomes and objectives
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 44: Research findings and conclusions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 45: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Discussion 6: Study tips and learning strategies
Example 50: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 53: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 54: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 55: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 7: Current trends and future directions
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 61: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 65: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 70: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Introduction 8: Current trends and future directions
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 71: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 73: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 76: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 78: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 79: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Appendix 9: Ethical considerations and implications
Practice Problem 80: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 81: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 83: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 84: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 85: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 88: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Exercise 10: Key terms and definitions
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 91: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 94: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 96: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 99: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Methodology 11: Experimental procedures and results
Practice Problem 100: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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