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Stephen Smith

Raspberry Pi Assembly Language Programming

ARM Processor Coding
Stephen Smith
Gibsons, BC, Canada

Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the author in this
book is available to readers on GitHub via the book’s product page, located at www.​
apress.​com/​978-1-4842-5286-4 . For more detailed information, please visit http://​
www.​apress.​com/​source-code .

ISBN 978-1-4842-5286-4 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-5287-1

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-5287-1

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© Stephen Smith 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms
or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.

Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book. Rather than use a
trademark symbol with every occurrence of a trademarked name, logo, or image we
use the names, logos, and images only in an editorial fashion and to the benefit of
the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. The use in
this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even
if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as
to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.

While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can
accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The
publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein.

Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Springer Science+Business Media New

York, 233 Spring Street, 6th Floor, New York, NY 10013. Phone 1-800-SPRINGER,
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www.springeronline.com. Apress Media, LLC is a California LLC and the sole member
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SSBM Finance Inc is a Delaware corporation.
This book is dedicated to my beloved wife and editor Cathalynn Labonté-Smith.
Introduction
If you really want to learn how a computer works, learning Assembly language is a
great way to get into the nitty-gritty details. The popularity and low cost of the
Raspberry Pi provide an ideal platform to learn advanced concepts in computing.
Even though the Raspberry Pi is inexpensive and credit card sized, it is still a
sophisticated computer with a quad-core processor, a floating-point coprocessor, and
a NEON parallel processing unit. What you learn about the Raspberry Pi is directly
relevant to any device with an ARM processor, which includes nearly every cell
phone and tablet. In fact, by volume, the ARM processor is the number one
processor today.
In this book, we will cover how you program the Raspberry Pi at the lowest
level; you will be operating as close to the hardware as possible. We will teach the
format of the instructions, how to put them together into programs as well as details
on the binary data formats they operate on. We will cover how to program the
floating-point processor as well as the NEON parallel processor. We cover how to
program the GPIO ports to interface to custom hardware, so you can experiment
with electronics connected to your Raspberry Pi.
All you need is a Raspberry Pi running Raspbian. This will provide all the tools
you need to learn Assembly programming. This is the low cost of entry of running
open source software like Raspbian Linux and the GNU Assembler. The last chapter
covers 64-bit programming, where you will need to run Ubuntu MATE on your Pi.
This book contains many working programs that you can play with, use as a
starting point, or study. The only way to learn programming is by doing; don’t be
afraid to experiment, as it is the only way you will learn.
Even if you don’t use Assembly programming in your day-to-day life, knowing
how the processor works at the Assembly level and knowing the low-level binary
data structures will make you a better programmer in all other areas. Knowing how
the processor works will let you write more efficient C code, and can even help you
with your Python programming.
The book is designed to be followed in sequence, but there are chapters that
can be skipped or skimmed, for instance, if you aren’t interested in interfacing to
hardware, you can pass on Chapter 8 , “Programming GPIO Pins,” or Chapter 11 ,
“Floating-Point Operations” if you will never do numerical computing.
I hope you enjoy your introduction to Assembly language. Learning it for one
processor family will help you with any other processor architectures you encounter
through your career.
Acknowledgments
No book is ever written in isolation. I want to especially thank my wife Cathalynn
Labonté-Smith for her support, encouragement, and expert editing.
I want to thank all the good folks at Apress who made the whole process easy
and enjoyable. A special shout-out to Jessica Vakili, my coordinating editor, who kept
the whole project moving quickly and smoothly. Thanks to Aaron Black, the senior
editor, who recruited me and got the project started. Thanks to Stewart Watkiss, my
technical reviewer, who helped make this a far better book. Thanks to James
Markham, my development editor, for all his good work keeping me to standards.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​Getting Started
About the ARM Processor
What You Will Learn
Why Use Assembly
Tools You Need
Computers and Numbers
ARM Assembly Instructions
CPU Registers
ARM Instruction Format
Raspberry Pi Memory
About the GCC Assembler
Hello World
About the Starting Comment
Where to Start
Assembly Instructions
Data
Calling Linux
Reverse Engineering Our Program
Summary
Chapter 2:​Loading and Adding
Negative Numbers
About Two’s Complement
About Gnome Programmer’s Calculator
About One’s Complement
Big vs.​Little-endian
About Bi-endian
Pros of Little-endian
Shifting and Rotating
About Carry Flag
About the Barrel Shifter
Basics of Shifting and Rotating
MOV/​MVN
About MOVT
Register to Register MOV
The Dreaded Flexible Operand2
MVN
MOV Examples
ADD/​ADC
Add with Carry
Summary
Chapter 3:​Tooling Up
GNU Make
Rebuilding a File
A Rule for Building .​s files
Defining Variables
GDB
Preparing to Debug
Beginning GDB
Source Control and Build Servers
Git
Jenkins
Summary
Chapter 4:​Controlling Program Flow
Unconditional Branch
About the CPSR
Branch on Condition
About the CMP Instruction
Loops
FOR Loops
While Loops
If/​Then/​Else
Logical Operators
AND
EOR
ORR
BIC
Design Patterns
Converting Integers to ASCII
Using Expressions in Immediate Constants
Storing a Register to Memory
Why Not Print in Decimal?​
Performance of Branch Instructions
More Comparison Instructions
Summary
Chapter 5:​Thanks for the Memories
Defining Memory Contents
Loading a Register
PC Relative Addressing
Loading from Memory
Indexing Through Memory
Storing a Register
Double Registers
Summary
Chapter 6:​Functions and the Stack
Stacks on Raspbian
Branch with Link
Nesting Function Calls
Function Parameters and Return Values
Managing the Registers
Summary of the Function Call Algorithm
Uppercase Revisited
Stack Frames
Stack Frame Example
Macros
Include Directive
Macro Definition
Labels
Why Macros?​
Summary
Chapter 7:​Linux Operating System Services
So Many Services
Calling Convention
Structures
Wrappers
Converting a File to Uppercase
Opening a File
Error Checking
Looping
Summary
Chapter 8:​Programming GPIO Pins
GPIO Overview
In Linux, Everything Is a File
Flashing LEDs
Moving Closer to the Metal
Virtual Memory
About Raspberry Pi 4 RAM
In Devices, Everything Is Memory
Registers in Bits
GPIO Function Select Registers
GPIO Output Set and Clear Registers
More Flashing LEDs
Root Access
Table Driven
Setting Pin Direction
Setting and Clearing Pins
Summary
Chapter 9:​Interacting with C and Python
Calling C Routines
Printing Debug Information
Adding with Carry Revisited
Calling Assembly Routines from C
Packaging Our Code
Static Library
Shared Library
Embedding Assembly Code Inside C Code
Calling Assembly from Python
Summary
Chapter 10:​Multiply, Divide, and Accumulate
Multiplication
Examples
Division
Example
Multiply and Accumulate
Vectors and Matrices
Accumulate Instructions
Example 1
Example 2
Summary
Chapter 11:​Floating-Point Operations
About Floating-Point Numbers
Normalization and NaNs
Rounding Errors
Defining Floating-Point Numbers
FPU Registers
Function Call Protocol
About Building
Loading and Saving FPU Registers
Basic Arithmetic
Distance Between Points
Floating-Point Conversions
Floating-Point Comparison
Example
Summary
Chapter 12:​NEON Coprocessor
The NEON Registers
Stay in Your Lane
Arithmetic Operations
4D Vector Distance
3x3 Matrix Multiplication
Summary
Chapter 13:​Conditional Instructions and Optimizing Code
Reasons Not to Use Conditional Instructions
No Conditional Instructions in 64 Bits
Improved Pipeline
About Conditional Code
Optimizing the Uppercase Routine
Simplifying the Range Comparison
Using a Conditional Instruction
Restricting the Problem Domain
Using Parallelism with SIMD
Summary
Chapter 14:​Reading and Understanding Code
Raspbian and GCC
Division Revisited
Code Created by GCC
Reverse Engineering and Ghidra
Summary
Chapter 15:​Thumb Code
16-Bit Instruction Format
Calling Thumb Code
Thumb-2 Is More than 16 Bits
IT Blocks
Uppercase in Thumb-2
Use the C Compiler
Summary
Chapter 16:​64 Bits
Ubuntu MATE
About 64 Bits
More and Bigger Registers
SP and Zero Register
Function Call Interface
Push and Pop Are Gone
Calling Linux Services
Porting from 32 Bits to 64 Bits
Porting Uppercase to 64 Bits
Conditional Instructions
Example with CSEL
FPU and the NEON Coprocessors
Registers
Instructions
Comparisons
Example Using NEON
Summary
Appendix A:​The ARM Instruction Set
Appendix B:​Linux System Calls
Linux System Call Numbers
Linux System Call Error Codes
Appendix C:​Binary Formats
Integers
Floating-Point
Addresses
64 Bits
Appendix D:​Assembler Directives
Appendix E:​ASCII Character Set
References
Index
About the Author and About the Technical Reviewer
About the Author
Stephen Smith

is a retired software architect, located in Gibsons, BC, Canada. He’s been developing
software since high school, or way too many years to record. He worked on the
Sage 300 line of accounting products for 23 years. Since retiring, he has pursued
artificial intelligence, earned his advanced ham radio license, and enjoys mountain
biking, hiking, and nature photography. He continues to write his popular technology
blog at smist08.wordpress.com and has written two science fiction novels in a
series, Influence , available on Amazon.com.

About the Technical Reviewer

Stewart Watkiss
is a keen maker, programmer, and author of Learn Electronics with Raspberry Pi . He
studied at the University of Hull, where he earned a master’s degree in electronic
engineering, and more recently at Georgia Institute of Technology, where he earned
a master’s degree in computer science.
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